The Communist Manifesto

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels begin The Communist Manifesto with one of the most famous declarations in political thought: “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” They assert that from ancient civilizations to modern industrial societies, every major social transformation has emerged from conflict between the ruling class—those who control economic resources—and the subordinate class—those who labor for them.

In Ancient Rome, society was divided into patricians, plebeians, and slaves. The patricians owned land and held political power, while slaves—captured in wars or born into bondage—had no rights and formed the economic backbone of Roman society. In medieval Europe, feudal lords owned vast estates, vassals pledged loyalty in exchange for protection, and serfs worked the land in exchange for subsistence. These serfs had no mobility, bound for life to the estate of their lord. The Church, too, reinforced the feudal hierarchy by preaching obedience as divine will.

As history progressed, old systems crumbled under the weight of economic change. The French Revolution of 1789, for example, was not just a political uprising—it marked the victory of the rising bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) over the feudal aristocracy. Industrialization further transformed the social order. The small workshops of craftsmen and guilds were replaced by factories powered by steam and machines. Cities like Manchester and Birmingham in England exploded with new industries—and with them came a new exploited class: the proletariat.

Marx and Engels argue that this process—of one class overthrowing another—is not a moral accident but an inevitable law of social development. Every social system carries within it the seeds of its own destruction, and the conflict between bourgeoisie and proletariat would, they predicted, be the final stage of class struggle.

The Bourgeoisie: Capitalism’s Builders and Destroyers

The bourgeoisie emerged as a revolutionary force that toppled feudalism and reshaped the entire world. They were merchants, factory owners, bankers, and industrialists who used innovation and trade to gain wealth and power. By creating new markets, inventing new machinery, and expanding international commerce, they revolutionized production and reorganized society around the pursuit of profit.

During the Industrial Revolution, this class harnessed steam engines, spinning jennies, and mechanized looms to multiply productivity. The textile mills of 19th-century England epitomized this change—machines that once required days of manual weaving could now produce thousands of yards of fabric daily. The bourgeoisie also established the modern financial system: banks, credit, and stock exchanges. They connected continents through railways, telegraphs, and trade, creating the first truly global economy.

However, Marx and Engels expose the darker side of this progress. In pursuit of profit, the bourgeoisie uprooted traditional social structures and turned human relations into market transactions. “All that is solid melts into air,” they wrote, describing how capitalism dissolves old moral values and replaces them with the logic of commerce. Love, art, education, and even religion became commodified. A teacher’s vocation became a wage job; art became a product to sell; family ties weakened as parents and children worked long hours in factories.

Moreover, the bourgeoisie’s success depends on constant revolutionization ...